Continue Where I Left Off

This pretests is intended to set the stage for your learning. These questions cover the most important topics in the module, and your results should help you recognize where you’ll want to focus.

spher

aden

cyt

gen

Separation

Segregation

Mitosis

Gestation

Vitamin

Enzyme

Salt

Lipid

DNA

Mineral

Base

Neuron

Genes

Enzymes

Nuclei

Organs

Lateral

Central

Posterior

Head

Spinal cord

Leg

Arm

Above

Near

Behind

Below

Introduction

All organisms are built from simple to more complex levels. Chemicals form the materials that make up cells, which are the body’s basic structural and functional units. Groups of cells working together make up tissues, which in turn make up the organs, which have specialized functions. Organs become components of the various systems, which together comprise the whole organism. This module discusses the terminology related to basic body structure, which will lead to the study of all individual organ systems in later modules.

At the completion of this module, the learner will be able to:

List the simplest to the most complex levels of a living organism.
Describe and locate the main parts of a cell.
Name and give the functions of the four basic types of tissues in the body.
Define basic terms pertaining to the structure and function of body tissues.
Define the main directional terms used in anatomy.
Describe division of the body along three different planes.
Locate the dorsal and ventral body cavities.
Locate and name the nine divisions and four quadrants of the abdomen.
Describe the main body positions used in medical practice.
Define basic terms describing body structure.
Use word parts pertaining to body organization and structure.

Illustration of progression in complexity from chemicals to cell to tissue to organ to organ system to body as a whole.

Levels of organization

The cell is the basic unit of living organisms. Cells accomplish all the activities and produce all the components of the body. They carry out metabolism, the sum of all the body’s physical and chemical activities. They provide the energy for metabolic reactions in the form of the chemical adenosine triphosphate (ATP), commonly described as the energy compound of the cell. The main categories of organic compounds contained in cells are:

Proteins, which include the enzymes, some hormones, and structural materials.
Carbohydrates, which include sugars and starches. The main carbohydrate is the sugar glucose, which circulates in the blood to provide energy for the cells.
Lipids, which include fats. Some hormones are derived from lipids, and adipose (fat) tissue is designed to store lipids.

Within the cytoplasm that fills the cell are subunits called organelles, each with a specific function. The main cell structures are named and described in the box below. Diseases may affect specific parts of cells. Cystic fibrosis and diabetes, for example, involve the plasma membrane. Other disorders originate with mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), lysosomes, or peroxisomes.

The nucleus is the control region of the cell. It contains the chromosomes, which carry genetic information. Each human cell, aside from the reproductive (sex) cells, contains 46 chromosomes. These thread-like structures compose a complex organic substance, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is organized into separate units called genes. Genes control the formation of proteins, most particularly enzymes, the catalysts needed to speed the rate of metabolic reactions. To help manufacture proteins, the cells use a compound called ribonucleic acid (RNA), which is chemically related to DNA. Changes (mutations) in the genes or chromosomes are the source of hereditary diseases, as described in the section called Congenital Disorders, from the module for Female Reproductive System; Pregnancy and Birth.

Key Terms: Cell Structures

Name	Description	Function
centrioles SEN-tre-olz	rod-shaped bodies (usually two) near the nucleus	help separate the chromosomes during cell division
cilia SIL-e-ah	short, hair-like projections from the cell	move the fluids around the cell
cytoplasm SI-to-plazm	colloidal suspension that fills the cell from the nuclear membrane to the plasma membrane	site of many cellular activities; consists of cytosol and organelles
cytosol SI-to-sol	fluid portion of the cytoplasm	surrounds the organelles
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) en-do-PLAZ-mik re-TIK-u-lum	network of membranes within the cytoplasm; rough ER has ribosomes attached to it; smooth ER does not	rough ER modifies, folds, and sorts proteins; smooth ER participates in lipid synthesis
flagellum flah-JEL-um	long, whip-like extension from the cell	moves the cell
Golgi apparatus GOL-je	layers of membranes	modifies proteins; sorts and prepares proteins for transport to other parts of the cell or out of the cell
lysosomes LI-so-somz	small sacs of digestive enzymes	digest substances within the cell
microvilli mi-kro-VIL-i	short extensions of the cell membrane	absorb materials into the cell
mitochondria mi-to-KON-dre-ah	large organelles with internal folded membranes	convert energy from nutrients into ATP
nucleolus nu-KLE-o-lus	small body in the nucleus	makes ribosomes
nucleus NU-kle-us	large, membrane-bound, dark-staining organelle near the center of the cell	contains the chromosomes, the hereditary units that direct all cellular activities
peroxisomes per-OKS-ih-somz	membrane-enclosed organelles containing enzymes	break down harmful substances
plasma membrane PLAZ-mah	outer layer of the cell, composed mainly of lipids and proteins	encloses the cell contents; regulates what enters and leaves the cell; participates in many activities, such as growth, reproduction, and interactions between cells
ribosomes RI-bo-somz	small bodies free in the cytoplasm or attached to the ER, composed of RNA and protein	manufacture proteins
surface projections	structures that extend from the cell	move the cell or the fluids around the cell
vesicles VES-ih-klz	small membrane-bound sacs in the cytoplasm	store materials and move materials into or out of the cell in bulk

Practice Activity

Membrane

Epithelium

Heart

Nucleus

RNA

Muscle

DNA

Sugar

Proteins

Lipids

Enzymes

Carbohydrates

Human chromosomes

When a body cell divides by the process of mitosis, the chromosomes are doubled and then equally distributed to the two daughter cells. The stages in mitosis are shown in the figure below. When a cell is not dividing, it remains in a stage called interphase. In cancer, cells multiply without control causing cellular overgrowth and tumors. Reproductive cells (eggs and sperm) divide by a related process, meiosis, that halves the chromosomes in preparation for fertilization. The role of meiosis in reproduction is further explained in the Female Reproductive System; Pregnancy and Birth module.

Image and illustration of stages of mitosis

Stages in cell division (mitosis)

Cells are organized into four basic types of tissues that perform specific functions:

Epithelial (ep-ih-THE-le-al) tissue, as shown in figure below, covers and protects body structures and lines organs, vessels, and cavities. Simple epithelium, composed of cells in a single layer, functions to absorb substances from one system to another, as in the respiratory and digestive tracts. Stratified epithelium, with cells in multiple layers, protects deeper tissues, as in the mouth and vagina. Most of the active cells in glands are epithelial cells. Glands are described in more detail in the Endocrine System module.

Images of simple and stratified epithelium

Epithelial tissue

Connective tissue supports and binds body structures. It contains fibers and other nonliving material between the cells. Included in this category are blood, adipose (fat) tissue, cartilage, and bone.

Images of adipose tissue, cartilage cells, and bone cells

Connective tissue

Muscle tissue (root: my/o) contracts to produce movement. There are three types of muscle tissues:

Skeletal muscle moves the skeleton. It has visible cross-bands, or striations, that are involved in contraction. Because it is under conscious control, it is also called voluntary muscle. Skeletal muscle is discussed in greater detail in the Skeletal System module.
Cardiac muscle forms the heart. It functions without conscious control and is described as involuntary. The Cardiovascular and Lymphatic Systems module describes the heart and its actions.
Smooth or visceral muscle forms the walls of the abdominal organs; it is also involuntary. Many organs described in later modules on the systems have walls made of smooth muscle. The walls of ducts and blood vessels also are composed mainly of smooth muscle.

Images of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle

Muscle tissue

Nervous tissue (root: neur/o) makes up the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It coordinates and controls body responses by the transmission of electrical impulses. The basic cell in nervous tissue is the neuron, or nerve cell. The nervous system and senses are discussed in the modules Nervous System and Mental Health, and Special Senses: Ear and Eye.

Images of neurons, bundles of neuron fibers, and gray and white matter

Nervous tissue

Membranes

A membrane (MEM-brane) is a simple, very thin, and pliable sheet of tissue. Membranes may cover an organ, line a cavity, or separate one structure from another. Some secrete special substances. Mucous membranes secrete mucus, a thick fluid that lubricates surfaces and protects the underlying tissue, as in the lining of the digestive tract and respiratory passages. Serous membranes, which secrete a thin, watery fluid, line body cavities and cover organs. These include the membranes around the heart and lungs. Fibrous membranes cover and support organs, as found around the bones, brain, and spinal cord.

The study of tissues is histology (his-TOL-o-je), based on the root hist/o, meaning “tissue.”

Practice Activity

Organelle

Nucleic acid

Gene

Membrane

Sugar

Carbohydrate

Protein

Fat

Muscle

Epithelial

Nervous

Cartilage

Tissues are arranged into organs, which serve specific functions, and organs, in turn, are grouped into individual systems. The figure above shows the organs of the digestive system as an example. Although all body systems are interrelated, they are listed and described separately here.

Integumentary system, which includes the skin and its associated structures, such as hair, sweat glands, and oil glands. This system functions in protection and also helps to regulate body temperature.
Skeletal system, which includes the bones and joints.
Muscular system, which moves the skeleton and makes up the walls of internal organs. The muscular system and skeleton protect vital body parts.
Nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves, and including the sensory system and special senses, with emphasis on the ear and the eye. This system receives and processes stimuli and directs responses.
Endocrine system, consisting of individual glands that produce hormones.
Cardiovascular system, consisting of the blood, heart, and blood vessels.
Lymphatic system, organs, and vessels that aid circulation and help protect the body from foreign materials.
Respiratory system, which obtains the oxygen needed for metabolism and eliminates carbon dioxide, a byproduct of metabolism.
Digestive system, which takes in, breaks down, and absorbs nutrients and eliminates undigested waste.
Urinary system, which eliminates soluble waste and balances the volume and composition of body fluids.
The male and female reproductive systems concerned with production of offspring

Each of the body systems is discussed in Part II. However, bear in mind that the body functions as a whole; no system is independent of the others. They work together to maintain the body’s state of internal stability, termed homeostasis (ho-me-o-STA-sis).

Key Terms: Cells to Organ Systems

The terms listed below are emphasized in this module. Knowing them will help you organize and prioritize your learning.

adenosine triphosphate (ATP) ah-DEN-o-sene tri-FOS-fate	The energy compound of the cell that stores energy needed for cell activities
carbohydrates kar-bo-HI-drates	The category of organic compounds that includes sugars and starches
cell sel	The basic structural and functional unit of the living organism, a microscopic unit that combines with other cells to form tissues (root: cyt/o)
chromosome KRO-mo-some	A thread-like body in a cell’s nucleus that contains genetic information
cytology si-TOL-o-je	Study of cells
cytoplasm SI-to-plazm	The fluid that fills a cell and holds the organelles
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) de-ok-se-ri-bo-nu-KLE-ik	The genetic compound of the cell, makes up the genes
enzyme EN-zime	An organic substance that speeds the rate of a metabolic reaction
gene jene	A hereditary unit composed of DNA and combined with other genes to form the chromosomes
glucose GLU-kose	A simple sugar that circulates in the blood, the main energy source for metabolism (roots: gluc/o, glyc/o)
histology his-TOL-o-je	Study of tissues
homeostasis ho-me-o-STA-sis	A steady state, a condition of internal stability and constancy
lipid LIP-id	A category of organic compounds that includes fats (root: lip/o)
membrane MEM-brane	A simple, very thin, and pliable sheet of tissue that might cover an organ, line a cavity, or separate structures
metabolism meh-TAB-o-lizm	The sum of all the physical and chemical reactions that occur within an organism
mitosis mi-TO-sis	Cell division
mucus MU-kus	A thick fluid secreted by cells in membranes and glands that lubricates and protects tissues (roots: muc/o, myx/o); the adjective is mucous
nucleus NU-kle-us	The cell’s control center; directs all cellular activities based on the information contained in its chromosomes (roots: nucle/o, kary/o)
organ OR-gan	A part of the body with a specific function, a component of a body system
organelle OR-gah-nel	A specialized structure in the cytoplasm of a cell
protein PRO-tene	A category of organic compounds that includes structural materials, enzymes, and some hormones
ribonucleic acid (RNA) ri-bo-nu-KLE-ik	An organic compound involved in the manufacture of proteins within cells
tissue TISH-u	A group of cells that acts together for a specific purpose (roots: hist/o, histi/o); types include epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue

Roots for Cells and Tissue

Root	Meaning	Example	Definition of Example
morph/o	form	polymorphous pol-e-MOR-fus	having many forms
cyt/o, -cyte	cell	cytologist si-TOL-o-jist	one who studies cells
nucle/o	nucleus	nuclear NU-kle-ar	pertaining to a nucleus
kary/o	nucleus	karyotype KAR-e-o-tipe	picture of a cell’s chromosomes organized according to size
hist/o, histi/o	tissue	histocompatibility his-to-kom-pat-ih-BIL-ih-te	tissue similarity that permits transplantation
fibr/o	fiber	fibrosis fi-BRO-sis	abnormal formation of fibrous tissue
reticul/o	network	reticulum reh-TIK-u-lum	a network
aden/o	gland	adenoma ad-eh-NO-mah	tumor (-oma) of a gland
papill/o	nipple	papilla pah-PIL-ah	projection that resembles a nipple
myx/o	mucus	myxadenitis miks-ad-eh-NI-tis	inflammation (-itis) of a mucus-secreting gland
muc/o	mucus, mucous membrane	mucorrhea mu-ko-RE-ah	increased flow (-rhea) of mucus
somat/o, -some	body, small body	chromosome KRO-mo-some	small body that takes up color (dye) (chrom/o)

Practice Activity

Roots for Cells Activity

Root	Meaning	Example	Definition of Example
blast/o, -blast	immature cell, productive cell, embryonic cell	histioblast HIS-te-o-blast	a tissue-forming cell
gen	origin, formation	karyogenesis kar-e-o-JEN-eh-sis	formation of a nucleus
phag/o	eat, ingest	autophagy aw-TOF-ah-je	self (auto)-destruction of a cell’s organelles
phil	attract, absorb	basophilic ba-so-FIL-ik	attracting basic stain
plas	formation, molding, development	hyperplasia hi-per-PLA-ze-ah	overdevelopment of an organ or tissue
trop	act on, affect	chronotropic kron-o-TROP-ik	affecting rate or timing (chron/o)
troph/o	feeding, growth, nourishment	atrophy AT-ro-fe	tissue wasting

The roots in the table are often combined with a simple noun suffix (-in, -y, or -ia) or an adjective suffix (-ic) and used as word endings. Such combined forms that routinely appear as word endings are simply described and used as suffixes in this book. Examples from the above list are: -phagy, -philic, -plasia, -tropic, and -trophy.

Practice Activity

Phagocyte (FAG-o-site)

Cell that ingests waste

Histogenesis (his-to-JEN-eh-sis)

Formation of tissue

Leukoblast (LU-ko-blast)

Immature white blood cell

Genetics (jeh-NET-iks)

Study of heredity

Hypertrophy (hi-PER-tro-fe)

Overdevelopment of tissue

Neoplasia (ne-o-PLA-ze-ah)

New formation of tissue

Gonadotropin (gon-ah-do-TRO-pin)

Substance that acts on the sex glands

Aplasia (ah-PLA-ze-ah)

Lack of development

Somatic (so-MAT-ik)

Pertaining to the body

Chromophilic (kro-mo-FIL-ik)

Attracting color

Suffixes for Roots for Body Chemistry

Word Part	Meaning	Example	Definition of Example
*Suffixes*
-ase	enzyme	lipase LI-pase	enzyme that digests fat (lipid)
-ose	sugar	lactose LAK-tose	milk sugar
*Roots*
hydr/o	water, fluid	hydration hi-DRA-shun	addition of water, relative amount of water present
gluc/o	glucose	glucogenesis glu-ko-JEN-eh-sis	production of glucose
glyc/o	sugar, glucose	normoglycemia nor-mo-gli-SE-me-ah	normal blood sugar level
sacchar/o	sugar	polysaccharide pol-e-SAK-ah-ride	compound containing many simple sugars
amyl/o	starch	amyloid AM-ih-loyd	resembling starch
lip/o	lipid, fat	lipophilic lip-o-FIL-ik	attracting or absorbing lipids
adip/o	fat	adiposuria ad-ih-po-SUR-e-ah	presence of fat in the urine (ur/o)
steat/o	fatty	steatorrhea ste-ah-to-RE-ah	discharge (-rhea) of fatty stools
prote/o	protein	protease PRO-te-ase	enzyme that digests protein

Practice Activity

A disaccharide (di-SAK-ah-ride) is a compound that contains two

Sugars

Hydrophobia (hi-dro-FO-be-ah) is an aversion (-phobia) to

Water

Amylase (AM-ih-lase) is an enzyme that digests

Starch

A glucocorticoid (glu-ko-KOR-tih-koyd) is a hormone that controls the metabolism of

Glucose

An adipocyte (AD-ih-po-site) is a cell that stores

Lipid, fat

Key Terms: Body Chemistry and Structure

The terms listed below increase your knowledge of this module topic.

amino acids ah-ME-no	The nitrogen-containing compounds that make up proteins
anabolism ah-NAB-o-lizm	The type of metabolism in which body substances are made; the building phase of metabolism
catabolism kah-TAB-o-lizm	The type of metabolism in which substances are broken down for energy and simple compounds
collagen KOL-ah-jen	A fibrous protein found in connective tissue
cortex KOR-tex	The outer region of an organ
glycogen GLI-ko-jen	A complex sugar compound stored in liver and muscles and broken down into glucose when needed for energy
interstitial in-ter-STISH-al	Between parts, such as the spaces between cells in a tissue
medulla meh-DUL-lah	The inner region of an organ, marrow (root: medull/o)
parenchyma par-EN-kih-mah	The functional tissue of an organ
parietal pah-RI-eh-tal	Pertaining to a wall, describes a membrane that lines a body cavity
soma SO-mah	The body
stem cell	An immature cell that has the capacity to develop into any of a variety of different cell types, a precursor cell
visceral VIS-er-al	Pertaining to the internal organs; describes a membrane on the surface of an organ

All health care professionals must be thoroughly familiar with the terms used to describe body locations and positions. Radiologic technologists, for example, must be able to position a person and direct x-rays to obtain suitable images for diagnosis, as noted in the box below.

Directional Terms

In describing the location or direction of a given point in the body, it is always assumed that the subject is in the anatomic position, that is, upright, with face front, arms at the sides with palms forward, and feet parallel. In this stance, the terms illustrated in the figure and box below are used to designate relative position.

Key Terms: Anatomic Directions

Term	Definition
anterior (ventral)	toward or at the front (belly) of the body
caudal	toward the lower end of the spine (Latin cauda means “tail”); in humans, in an inferior direction
cranial (cephalad)	toward the head
deep (internal)	closer to the center of the body
distal	farther from the point of attachment or from a given reference point
inferior	below, in a lower position
lateral	toward the side of the body
medial	toward the midline of the body
posterior (dorsal)	toward or at the back (dorsum) of the body
proximal	nearer to the point of attachment or to a given reference point
superficial (external)	closer to the surface of the body
superior	above, in a higher position

The figure below illustrates planes of section, that is, directions in which the body can be cut. A frontal plane, also called a coronal plane, is made at right angles to the midline and divides the body into anterior and posterior parts. A sagittal plane passes from front to back and divides the body into right and left portions. If the plane passes through the midline, it is a midsagittal or medial plane. A transverse (horizontal) plane passes horizontally, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts.

Illustration of frontal, sagittal, and transverse planes

Planes of division

Body Cavities

Internal organs are located within dorsal and ventral cavities. The dorsal cavity contains the brain in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord in the spinal cavity (canal). The uppermost ventral space, the thoracic cavity, is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm, a muscle used in breathing. There is no anatomic separation between the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity, which together make up the abdominopelvic cavity. The large membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity and covers the organs within it is the peritoneum (per-ih-to-NE-um).

Illustration of cranial, spinal, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities

Body cavities (lateral view)

Practice Activity

Lateral and ventral cavities

Superior and inferior cavities

Thoracic and abdominal cavities

Cranial and spinal cavities

Shoulder

Arm

Wrist

Neck

Lateral and anterior

Anterior and posterior

Right and left

Superior and inferior

Abdominal Regions

For orientation, the abdomen can be divided by imaginary lines into nine regions—three medial regions and six lateral regions. The sections down the midline are the:

Epigastric (ep-ih-GAS-trik) region, located above the stomach
Umbilical (um-BIL-ih-kal) region, named for the umbilicus, or navel
Hypogastric (hi-po-GAS-trik) region, located below the stomach

The lateral regions have the same name on the left and right sides. They are the:

Hypochondriac (hi-po-KON-dre-ak) regions, right and left, named for their positions near the ribs, specifically near the cartilages (root: chondr/o) of the ribs
Lumbar (LUM-bar) regions, right and left, which are located near the small of the back (lumbar region of the spine)
Iliac (IL-e-ak) regions, right and left, named for the upper bone of the hip, the ilium; also called the inguinal (ING-gwih-nal) regions, with reference to the groin

Nine regions of the abdomen

More simply, but less precisely, the abdomen can be divided into four sections by a single vertical line and a single horizontal line that intersect at the umbilicus (navel). The sections are the right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).

Quadrants of the abdomen

Additional terms for body regions are shown below. You may need to refer to these illustrations as you work through the modules.

Illustration of a rear view of a body with regions labeled

Common terms for body regions (posterior view)

Positions

In addition to the anatomic position, there are other standard positions in which the body is placed for special purposes, such as examination, tests, surgery, or fluid drainage. The most common of these positions and some of their uses are described in below.

Key Terms: Body Positions

Position	Description
anatomic position an-ah-TOM-ik	standing erect, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward, legs parallel, toes pointed forward; used for descriptions and studies of the body
decubitus position de-KU-bih-tus	lying down, specifically according to the part of the body resting on a flat surface, as in left or right lateral decubitus, or dorsal or ventral decubitus
dorsal recumbent position re-KUM-bent	on back, with legs bent and separated, feet flat; used for obstetrics and gynecology
Fowler’s position	on back, head of bed raised about 18 inches, knees elevated; used to ease breathing and for drainage
jackknife position JAK-nife	on back with shoulders elevated, legs flexed and thighs at right angles to the abdomen; used to introduce a tube into the urethra
knee–chest position	on knees, head and upper chest on table, arms crossed above head; used in gynecology and obstetrics and for flushing the intestine
lateral recumbent position	on the side with one leg flexed, arm position may vary
lithotomy position lih-THOT-o-me	on back, legs flexed on abdomen, thighs apart; used for gynecologic and urologic surgery
prone	lying face down
prone jackknife position JAK-nife	on abdomen with bed bent so that the body is in a V with the head and feet below the hips. Used for anorectal surgery
Sims position	on left side, right leg drawn up high and forward, left arm along back, chest forward resting on bed; used for kidney and uterine surgery, colon examination, and enemas
supine SU-pine	lying face up
Trendelenburg position tren-DEL-en-berg	on back with head lowered by tilting bed back at 45-degree angle; used for pelvic and abdominal surgery, treatment of shock

To remember the difference between prone and supine, look for the word “up” in supine.

Practice Activity

Right lumbar

Umbilical

Left hypochondriac

Hypogastric

Iliac

Lumbar

Epigastric

Umbilical

Supine

Superior

Pronated

Seated

Key Terms: The Body as a Whole

The terms listed below are emphasized in this module. Knowing them will help you organize and prioritize your learning.

Term	Description
abdominal cavity ab-DOM-ih-nal	The large ventral cavity below the diaphragm and above the pelvic cavity
abdominopelvic cavity ab-dom-ih-no-PEL-vik	The large ventral cavity between the diaphragm and pelvis that includes the abdominal and pelvic cavities
anatomic position an-ah-TOM-ik	Standard position for anatomic studies, in which the body is erect and facing forward, the arms are at the sides with palms forward, and the feet are parallel
cranial cavity KRA-ne-al	The dorsal cavity that contains the brain
diaphragm DI-ah-fram	The muscle that separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity
frontal (coronal) plane FRUHN-tal	Plane of section that separates the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions
pelvic cavity PEL-vik	The ventral cavity that is below the abdominal cavity
peritoneum per-ih-to-NE-um	The large serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity and covers the organs within it
sagittal plane SAJ-ih-tal	Plane that divides the body into right and left portions
spinal cavity (canal) SPI-nal	Dorsal cavity that contains the spinal cord
thoracic cavity tho-RAS-ik	The ventral cavity above the diaphragm, the chest cavity
transverse (horizontal) plane trans-VERS	Plane that divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions

The tables below provide word roots and prefixes pertaining to body structure.

Roots for Regions of the Head and Trunk

Root	Meaning	Example	Definition of Example
cephal/o	head	megacephaly meg-ah-SEF-a-le	abnormal largeness of the head
cervic/o	neck	cervicofacial ser-vih-ko-FA-shal	pertaining to the neck and face
thorac/o	chest, thorax	thoracotomy tho-rah-KOT-o-me	incision (-tomy) into the chest
abdomin/o	abdomen	intra-abdominal in-trah-ab-DOM-ih-nal	within the abdomen
celi/o	abdomen	celiocentesis se-le-o-sen-TE-sis	surgical puncture (centesis) of the abdomen
lapar/o	abdominal wall	laparoscope LAP-ah-ro-skope	instrument (-scope) for viewing the peritoneal cavity through the abdominal wall
lumb/o	lumbar region, lower back	thoracolumbar tho-rak-o-LUM-bar	pertaining to the chest and lumbar region
periton, peritone/o	peritoneum	peritoneal per-ih-to-NE-al	pertaining to the peritoneum

Practice Activity

Roots for the Extremities

Root	Meaning	Example	Definition of Example
acro	extremity, end	acrocyanosis ak-ro-si-ah-NO-sis	bluish discoloration of the extremities
brachi/o	arm	antebrachium an-te-BRA-ke-um	forearm
dactyl/o	finger, toe	polydactyly pol-e-DAK-til-e	having more than the normal number of fingers or toes
ped/o	foot	pedometer pe-DOM-eh-ter	instrument that measures footsteps
pod/o	foot	podiatric po-de-AT-rik	pertaining to study and treatment of the foot

Practice Activity

Roots for Position and Direction

Root	Meaning	Example	Definition of Example
circum-	around	circumoral ser-kum-OR-al	around the mouth
peri-	around	periorbital per-e-OR-bit-al	around the orbit (eye socket)
intra-	in, within	intravascular in-trah-VAS-ku-lar	within a vessel (vascul/o)
epi-	on, over	epithelial ep-ih-THE-le-al	referring to epithelium, tissue that covers surfaces
extra-	outside	extrathoracic eks-trah-tho-RAS-ik	outside the thorax
infra-*	below	infrascapular in-frah-SKAP-u-lar	below the scapula (shoulder blade)
sub-*	below, under	sublingual sub-LING-gwal	under the tongue (lingu/o)
inter-	between	intercostal in-ter-KOS-tal	between the ribs (cost/o)
juxta-	near, beside	juxtaposition juks-tah-po-ZIH-shun	a location near or beside another structure
para-	near, beside	parasagittal par-ah-SAJ-ih-tal	near or beside a sagittal plane
retro-	behind, backward	retrouterine reh-tro-U-ter-in	behind the uterus
supra-	above	suprapatellar su-prah-pah-TEL-ar	above the patella (kneecap)
*Also indicates degree.

Practice Activity

Key Terms: The Body as a Whole

The terms listed below increase your knowledge of this module topic.

digit DIJ-it	A finger or toe (adjective: digital)
epigastrium ep-ih-GAS-tre-um	The epigastric region
fundus FUN-dus	The base or body of a hollow organ, the area of an organ farthest from its opening
hypochondrium hi-po-KON-dre-um	The hypochondriac region (left or right)
lumen LU-men	The central opening within a tube or hollow organ
meatus me-A-tus	A passage or opening
orifice OR-ih-fis	The opening of a cavity
os	Mouth, any body opening
septum SEP-tum	A wall dividing two cavities
sinus SI-nus	A cavity, as within a bone
sphincter SFINK-ter	A circular muscle that regulates an opening

Abbreviations

The abbreviations listed below are emphasized in this module.

LLQ	Left lower quadrant
LUQ	Left upper quadrant
RLQ	Right lower quadrant
RUQ	Right upper quadrant

Needle Aspiration of Thyroid Tumor

Chief Complaint

Mathew, a 65-year-old male, noticed a lump on the side of his neck and went to see his physician. He has a history of prostate cancer and had a prostatectomy 4 years ago. Bilateral lymph node dissection revealed no metastasis. His physician referred him to a surgeon for evaluation of a nodule on the thyroid gland.

Examination

Dr. Thompson, a general surgeon, examined Mathew and recommended a needle aspiration of the thyroid gland. The ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration revealed atypical cells with abundant cytoplasm and prominent nuclei but no metastasis. However, the nuclei showed some morphologic changes. Histologic slides of the left thyroid showed clusters of epithelial cells associated with lymphocytes suggestive of lymphocytic thyroiditis.

Clinical Course

Mathew underwent a total thyroidectomy and is healing well. A follow-up CT scan of the neck and chest showed no additional nodules or indications of metastatic disease.

Case Study Questions

Removal or excision

Incision into

Inflammation

Resembling

Nucleolus

Nucleoli

Nucleum

Nucleus

Emergency Care

During a triathlon, paramedics responded to a scene with multiple patients involved in a serious bicycle accident. Patti, a 20-year-old female, lost control of her bike while descending a hill at approximately 40 mph. As she fell, two other cyclists collided with her, sending all three crashing to the ground.

At the scene, Patti reported pain in her head, back, chest, and leg. She also had numbness and tingling in her legs and feet. Other injuries included a cut on her face and on her right arm and an obvious deformity to both her shoulder and knee. She had slight difficulty breathing.

The paramedic did a rapid cephalocaudal assessment and immobilized Patti’s neck in a cervical collar. She was secured on a backboard and given oxygen. After her bleeding was controlled and her injured extremities were immobilized, she was transported to the nearest emergency department.

During transport, the paramedic in charge radioed ahead to provide a prehospital report to the charge nurse. Her report included the following information: occipital and frontal head pain; laceration to right temple, superior and anterior to right ear; lumbar pain; bilateral thoracic pain on inspiration at midclavicular line on the right and midaxillary line on the left; dull aching pain of the posterior proximal right thigh; bilateral paresthesia (numbness and tingling) of distal lower legs circumferentially; varus (knock-knee) adduction deformity of left knee; and posterior displacement deformity of left shoulder.

At the hospital, the emergency department physician ordered radiographs for Patti. Before the procedure, the radiology technologist positioned a lead gonadal shield centered on the midsagittal line above Patti’s symphysis pubis to protect her ovaries from unnecessary irradiation by the primary beam. The technologist knew that gonadal shielding is important for female patients undergoing imaging of the lumbar spine, sacroiliac joints, acetabula, pelvis, and kidneys. Shields should not be used for any examination in which an acute abdominal condition is suspected.

Case Study Questions

Preoperative

Prehospital

Pretrauma

Intrainjury

Front to back

Head to toe

Side to side

Skin to bone

Abducted as far as possible

Internally rotated and flexed

Adducted so that the limbs are crossed

Held in place to prevent movement

Uterus

Shoulders

Neck

Pelvis

Acetabulum

Acetabia

Acetab

Acetabulae

This worksheet can be printed and filled out for additional practice opportunities.